Today Dr. Rousselet chatted with Dr. Hofmeyer, a wildlife veterinarian working in South Africa and Botswana.

He shares his vision about Conservation, One Health and the challenges when people, lifestock and rhinoceroses live together.

« We have to change the way we behave, from an individual level… »

After qualifying as a veterinarian, Markus worked at a variety of practices including Clinical Practice in Exotic Animal Medicine. In 1995, Markus got his break in the wildlife industry when he was employed in Madikwe Game Reserve- where he gained a tremendous amount of ecological, veterinary, and management experience in wildlife translocations. From there he moved to the Kruger National Park and then became Head of Veterinary Wildlife Services at South African National Parks, for 15 years. His expertise on wildlife conservation management, veterinary and crime issues led him to the position of Chief Conservation Officer for the Great Plains Conservation Foundation & Rhinos without Borders since 2017. Due to the sudden increase in rhino poaching crises, Markus has been highly involved in wildlife crime prevention. His role includes leading Veterinary aspects of Rhinos without Borders and support relevant government institutions with veterinary support and training.

1. Few publications to know more about rhinoceros (mostly about anesthesia):

CHALLENGES TO ANIMAL WELFARE ASSOCIATED WITH CAPTURE AND LONG ROAD TRANSPORT IN BOMA-ADAPTED BLACK (DICEROS BICORNIS) AND SEMI-CAPTIVE WHITE (CERATOTHERIUM SIMUM) RHINOCEROSES 

Friederike Pohlin; Markus Hofmeyr; Emma H. Hooijberg; Dee Blackhurst; Mmadi Reuben; Dave Cooper; Leith C. R. MeyerJ Wildl Dis (2020)

Capture and transport are part of translocation and expose animals to a variety of stressors that can lead to morbidity and mortality. We aimed to establish a better understanding of the physiologic responses to capture and transport in black (Diceros bicornis) and white (Ceratotherium simum) rhinoceroses in Southern Africa. Fourteen adult black rhinoceroses were transported 600 km by vehicle and 32 white rhinoceroses (24 adults and 8 juveniles) were transported 1,300 km by vehicle. The black rhinoceroses had been wild-caught and boma-adapted over 6 wk prior to the translocation and were only sedated to allow for loading into the transport crates. The white rhinoceroses originated from a game farm and were chemically immobilized from a helicopter and then loaded. Paired blood samples were collected from animals at loading (capture) and after transport and evaluated for changes in clinical chemistry analytes, acute phase reactants, and oxidative stress biomarkers. The Wilcoxon rank sum test was used to compare changes in measured analytes from capture and after transport. All rhinoceroses survived capture and transport. Rhinoceroses experienced total body water loss, mobilization of energy reserves, and muscular damage. Alterations in acute phase reactants suggested that animals mounted a stress response. Oxidative stress was observed in black rhinoceroses. We identified the following challenges to animal welfare during transport: hydration status, energy balance, skeletal muscle fatigue, and stress-induced immunomodulation. Measures to mitigate these challenges, such as administration of fluids, need to be included in the planning of future translocations.

Butorphanol with oxygen insufflation improves cardiorespiratory function in field-immobilised white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum)

Anna Haw, Markus Hofmeyr, Andrea Fuller, Peter Buss, Michele Miller, Gregory Fleming, Leith Meyer. J S Afr Vet Assoc. 2015.

Opioid-induced immobilisation results in severe respiratory compromise in the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). The effectiveness of oxygen insufflation combined with butorphanol in alleviating respiratory depression in free-ranging chemically immobilised white rhinoceroses was investigated. In this prospective intervention study 14 free-ranging white rhinoceroses were immobilised with a combination of etorphine, azaperone and hyaluronidase. Six minutes (min) after the animals became recumbent, intravenous butorphanol was administered and oxygen insufflation was initiated. Previous boma trial results were used for comparison, using repeated measures two-way analysis of variance. The initial immobilisation-induced hypoxaemia in free-ranging rhinoceroses (arterial partial pressure of oxygen [PaO2] 35.4 mmHg ± 6.6 mmHg) was similar to that observed in boma-confined rhinoceroses (PaO2 31 mmHg ± 6 mmHg, n = 8). Although the initial hypercapnia (PaCO2 63.0 mmHg ± 7.5 mmHg) was not as severe as that in animals in the boma trial (79 mmHg ± 7 mmHg), the field-immobilised rhinoceroses were more acidaemic (pH 7.10 ± 0.14) at the beginning of the immobilisation compared with boma-immobilised rhinoceroses (pH 7.28 ± 0.04). Compared with pre-intervention values, butorphanol with oxygen insufflation improved the PaO2 (81.2 mmHg ± 23.7 mmHg, p < 0.001, 5 min vs 20 min), arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (55.3 mmHg ± 5.2 mmHg, p < 0.01, 5 min vs 20 min), pH (7.17 ± 0.11, p < 0.001, 5 min vs 20 min), heart rate (78 breaths/min ± 20 breaths/min, p < 0.001, 5 min vs 20 min) and mean arterial blood pressure (105 mmHg ± 14 mmHg, p < 0.01, 5 min vs 20 min). Oxygen insufflation combined with a single intravenous dose of butorphanol improved oxygenation and reduced hypercapnia and acidaemia in immobilised free-ranging white rhinoceroses.

Use of butorphanol during immobilization of free-ranging white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum)

Michele Miller, Peter Buss, Jenny Joubert, Nomkhosi Mathebula, Marius Kruger, Laura Martin, Markus Hofmeyr, Francisco Olea-Popelka

Forty free-ranging white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) were anesthetized with etorphine, azaperone, and hyaluronidase in Kruger National Park, South Africa, between February and August 2009. Eighteen rhinoceros received butorphanol in the dart combination, and 22 rhinoceros had butorphanol administered intravenously within 15 min of darting. Body position, blood gas values, heart rate, respiratory rate, and temperature were measured at two time points after darting, approximately 10 min apart (sample 1 mean collection time after darting, 9.4 +/- 2.7 min; sample 2 mean collection time, 18.6 +/- 2.8 min). A significant number of field-captured rhinoceros remained standing at the first sample period when butorphanol was administered in the dart. Higher median values for arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) in combination with lower arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) in standing versus recumbent rhinoceros suggested improved ventilation in this posture (P < 0.05). When the effect of time, body position, and age was controlled, median values for respiratory rate, lactate, and pH were better in rhinoceros that received butorphanol in the dart (P < 0.05). There was also a trend toward higher median values for SO2 and bicarbonate in rhinoceros receiving butorphanol in the dart. Intravenous administration of butorphanol resulted in significantly decreased median PaCO2 and heart rate in recumbent rhinoceros (P < 0.05) without changes in PaO2 between sample periods 1 and 2. However, rhinoceros remained hypoxemic during the short anesthetic procedure despite butorphanol administration. Preliminary results suggest that administration of butorphanol (either in the dart or intravenously) improves some metabolic parameters in free-ranging recumbent white rhinoceros without significantly affecting ventilation. It is hypothesized that this may be due to a lighter state of immobilization. Addition of butorphanol to the dart provides handling and physiologic advantages because the majority of rhinoceros remain standing.

Butorphanol with oxygen insufflation corrects etorphine-induced hypoxaemia in chemically immobilized white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum)

Anna Haw, Markus Hofmeyr, Andrea Fuller, Peter Buss, Michele Miller, Gregory Fleming, Leith Meyer. Clinical Trial BMC Vet Res. 2014

Background: Opioid-induced immobilization is associated with severe respiratory depression in the white rhinoceros. We evaluated the efficacy of butorphanol and oxygen insufflation in alleviating opioid-induced respiratory depression in eight boma-managed rhinoceros.

Results: Chemical immobilization with etorphine, azaperone and hyaluronidase, as per standard procedure for the white rhinoceros, caused severe respiratory depression with hypoxaemia (PaO2 = 27 ± 7 mmHg [mean ± SD]), hypercapnia (PaCO2 = 82 ± 6 mmHg) and acidosis (pH =7.26 ± 0.02) in the control trial at 5 min. Compared to pre-intervention values, butorphanol administration (without oxygen) improved the PaO2 (60 ± 3 mmHg, F (3,21) =151.9, p < 0.001), PaCO2 (67 ± 4 mmHg, F (3,21) =22.57, p < 0.001) and pH (7.31 ± 0.06, F (3,21) = 27.60, p < 0.001), while oxygen insufflation alone exacerbated the hypercapnia (123 ± 20 mmHg, F (3,21) = 50.13, p < 0.001) and acidosis (7.12 ± 0.07, F (3,21) = 110.6, p < 0.001). Surprisingly, butorphanol combined with oxygen fully corrected the opioid-induced hypoxaemia (PaO2 = 155 ± 53 mmHg) and reduced the hypercapnia over the whole immobilization period (p <0.05, areas under the curves) compared to the control trial. However, this intervention (butorphanol + oxygen) did not have any effect on the arterial pH.

Conclusions: Oxygen insufflation combined with a single intravenous dose of butorphanol improved the immobilization quality of boma-managed white rhinoceros by correcting the opioid-induced hypoxaemia, but did not completely reverse all components of respiratory depression. The efficacy of this intervention in reducing respiratory depression in field-captured animals remains to be determined.

Use of butorphanol and diprenorphine to counter respiratory impairment in the immobilised white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum)

Leith C R Meyer, Andrea Fuller, Markus Hofmeyr, Peter Buss, Michele Miller, Anna Haw. J S Afr Vet Assoc. 2018 Oct 18;89(0):e1-e8. 

Opioid-induced immobilisation results in severe respiratory impairment in the white rhinoceros. It has therefore been attempted in the field to reverse this impairment with the use of opioid agonist-antagonists, such as nalorphine, nalbuphine, butorphanol and diprenorphine; however, the efficacy of some of these treatments has yet to be determined. The efficacy of butorphanol, either alone or in combination with diprenorphine both with and without oxygen insufflation, in alleviating opioid-induced respiratory impairment was evaluated. The study was performed in two parts: a boma trial and a field trial. Rhinoceroses were immobilised specifically for the study, according to a strict protocol to minimise confounding variables. A two-way analysis of variance was used to compare the physiological responses of the rhinoceroses to the different treatments and their effects over time. The intravenous administration of butorphanol (at 3.3 mg per mg etorphine) plus diprenorphine (at 0.4 mg per mg etorphine) did not offer any advantage over butorphanol (at 15 mg per mg etorphine) alone with regard to improving PaO2, PaCO2 and respiratory rates in etorphine-immobilised white rhinoceroses. Both butorphanol + diprenorphine + oxygen and butorphanol + oxygen, at the doses used, significantly improved the etorphine-induced hypoxaemia in both boma- and field-immobilised white rhinoceroses. Clinically acceptable oxygenation in field-immobilised white rhinoceroses can be achieved by using either treatment regimen, provided that it is combined with oxygen insufflation.

Tremors in white rhinoceroses ( Ceratotherium simum) during etorphine-azaperone immobilisation

Stephanie S De Lange, Andrea Fuller, Anna Haw, Markus Hofmeyr, Peter Buss, Michele Miller, Leith C R Meyer. J S Afr Vet Assoc. 2017 Feb 24;88(0):e1-e10

Little is known about the mechanisms causing tremors during immobilisation of rhinoceros and whether cardiorespiratory supportive interventions alter their intensity. Therefore, we set out to determine the possible mechanisms that lead to muscle tremors and ascertain whether cardiorespiratory supportive interventions affect tremor intensity. We studied tremors and physiological responses during etorphine-azaperone immobilisation in eight boma-held and 14 free-living white rhinoceroses. Repeated measures analysis of variance and a Friedman test were used to determine differences in variables over time and between interventions. Spearman and Pearson correlations were used to test for associations between variables. Tremor intensity measured objectively by activity loggers correlated well (p &lt; 0.0001; r2 = 0.9) with visual observations. Tremor intensity was greatest when animals were severely hypoxaemic and acidaemic. Tremor intensity correlated strongly and negatively with partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2 ) (p = 0.0003; r2 = 0.9995) and potential of hydrogen (pH) (p = 0.02, r2 = 0.97). It correlated strongly and positively with adrenaline concentrations (p = 0.003; r2 = 0.96), and adrenaline correlated strongly and negatively with PaO2 (p = 0.03; r2 = 0.95) and pH (p = 0.03; r2 = 0.94). Therefore, hypoxaemia and acidaemia were likely associated with the intensity of tremors through their activation of the release of tremorgenic levels of adrenaline. Tremors can be reduced if circulating adrenaline is reduced, and this can be achieved by the administration of butorphanol plus oxygen insufflation. Furthermore, to assist with reducing the risks associated with rhinoceros immobilisation, tremor intensity could be used as a clinical indicator of respiratory and metabolic compromise.

EFFECTS OF A SUPPLEMENTAL ETORPHINE DOSE ON PULMONARY ARTERY PRESSURE AND CARDIAC OUTPUT IN IMMOBILIZED, BOMA-HABITUATED WHITE RHINOCEROS ( CERATOTHERIUM SIMUM): A PRELIMINARY STUDY

Jordyn M Boesch, R D Gleed, Peter Buss, Markus Hofmeyr, Adrian Tordiffe, Gareth Zeiler, Leith M. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2018 Dec 13;49(4):849-855.

The effects of etorphine on the pulmonary vascular system of white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum) have not been described and could play a role in the severe hypoxemia that develops after immobilization with etorphine-based drug combinations. Characterization of these effects requires measurement of pulmonary vascular pressures and cardiac output (CO). To refine a technique for pulmonary arterial catheterization, five boma-habituated white rhinoceros (three females and two males weighing 1,012-1,572 kg) were immobilized by remote injection with etorphine plus azaperone followed by butorphanol. This afforded the opportunity to perform a pilot study and acquire preliminary measurements of pulmonary arterial pressure (PAP) and CO before and after supplemental etorphine given intravenously. Ultrasonographic guidance was used to insert a sheath introducer into a linguofacial branch of a jugular vein. A 160-cm-long pulmonary artery catheter with a balloon and thermistor was then passed through the introducer and positioned with its tip in the pulmonary artery. It was not long enough to permit wedging for measurement of pulmonary artery occlusion pressure. Mean PAP was 35 mm Hg (minimum, maximum 32, 47 mm Hg) and increased ( P = 0.031) by 83% (28, 106%) after supplemental etorphine. Thermodilution CO was 120 L/min (92, 145 L/min) and increased 27% (3, 43%) ( P = 0.031). Heart rate was 100 (88, 112) beats/min and increased 20% (4, 45%) ( P = 0.031), whereas arterial partial pressure of oxygen was 35 mm Hg (30, 94 mm Hg) and decreased 47% (20, 72%) ( P = 0.031). The cardiovascular observations could result from etorphine-induced generalized sympathetic outflow, as has been reported in horses. Further studies of etorphine in isolation are needed to test this suggestion and to discern how the changes in pulmonary vascular pressures and blood flow might relate to hypoxemia in etorphine-immobilized white rhinoceros.

2. Few publications to know more about rhinoceros and human conflict

A review of bovine tuberculosis at the wildlife-livestock-human interface in sub-Saharan Africa

M De Garine-Wichatitsky, A Caron, R Kock, R Tschopp, M Munyeme, M Hofmeyr, A Michel. Epidemiol Infect. 2013 Jul;141(7):1342-56. 

Infection of wild animals by bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is raising concern worldwide. This article reviews the current epidemiological situation, risk of emergence and control options at the wildlife-livestock-human interface in sub-Saharan Africa. In livestock, bTB has been confirmed in the majority of countries from all parts of the continent. Wildlife infection is confirmed in seven countries from southern and eastern Africa, apparently spreading in the southern Africa region. Mycobacterium bovis has been isolated from 17 wild mammal species, although only four are suspected to play a role as maintenance host. Zoonotic risks are a concern, but no direct spillover from wildlife to humans has been documented, and no case of bTB spillback from wildlife to livestock has been confirmed. In this paper we assess the main risk factors of bTB spillover at the wildlife-livestock-human interface and suggest several research themes which could improve the control of the disease in the African context.

Conservation of White Rhinoceroses Threatened by Bovine Tuberculosis, South Africa, 2016-2017

2Michele A Miller, Peter Buss, Sven D C Parsons, Eduard Roos, Josephine Chileshe, Wynand J Goosen, Louis van Schalkwyk, Lin-Mari de Klerk-Lorist, Markus Hofmeyr, et al. Emerg Infect Dis. 2018 Dec;24(12):2373-2375.

During 2016-2017, when Kruger National Park, South Africa, was under quarantine to limit bovine tuberculosis spread, we examined 35 white and 5 black rhinoceroses for infection. We found 6 infected white rhinoceroses during times of nutritional stress. Further research on Mycobacterium bovis pathogenesis in white rhinoceroses is needed.

Robust forensic matching of confiscated horns to individual poached African rhinoceros

Cindy Harper, et al. Curr Biol. 2018 Jan 8;28(1):R13-R14. 

Black and white rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis and Ceratotherium simum) are iconic African species that are classified by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as Critically Endangered and Near Threatened (http://www.iucnredlist.org/), respectively [1]. At the end of the 19^th century, Southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) numbers had declined to fewer than 50 animals in the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi region of the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province of South Africa, mainly due to uncontrolled hunting [2,3]. Efforts by the Natal Parks Board facilitated an increase in population to over 20,000 in 2015 through aggressive conservation management [2]. Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) populations declined from several hundred thousand in the early 19^th century to ∼65,000 in 1970 and to ∼2,400 by 1995 [1] with subsequent genetic reduction, also due to hunting, land clearances and later poaching [4]. In South Africa, rhinoceros poaching incidents have increased from 13 in 2007 to 1,215 in 2014 [1]. This has occurred despite strict trade bans on rhinoceros products and strict enforcement in recent years.

Identification of policies for a sustainable legal trade in rhinoceros horn based on population projection and socioeconomic models

Enrico Di Minin, Jussi Laitila, Federico Montesino-Pouzols, Nigel Leader-Williams, Rob Slotow, Peter S Goodman, Anthony J Conway, Atte Moilanen Conserv Biol. 2015; 29(2): 545-555.

Between 1990 and 2007, 15 southern white (Ceratotherium simum simum) and black (Diceros bicornis) rhinoceroses on average were killed illegally every year in South Africa. Since 2007 illegal killing of southern white rhinoceros for their horn has escalated to >950 individuals/year in 2013. We conducted an ecological-economic analysis to determine whether a legal trade in southern white rhinoceros horn could facilitate rhinoceros protection. Generalized linear models were used to examine the socioeconomic drivers of poaching, based on data collected from 1990 to 2013, and to project the total number of rhinoceroses likely to be illegally killed from 2014 to 2023. Rhinoceros population dynamics were then modeled under 8 different policy scenarios that could be implemented to control poaching. We also estimated the economic costs and benefits of each scenario under enhanced enforcement only and a legal trade in rhinoceros horn and used a decision support framework to rank the scenarios with the objective of maintaining the rhinoceros population above its current size while generating profit for local stakeholders. The southern white rhinoceros population was predicted to go extinct in the wild <20 years under present management. The optimal scenario to maintain the rhinoceros population above its current size was to provide a medium increase in antipoaching effort and to increase the monetary fine on conviction. Without legalizing the trade, implementing such a scenario would require covering costs equal to approximately $147,000,000/year. With a legal trade in rhinoceros horn, the conservation enterprise could potentially make a profit of $717,000,000/year. We believe the 35-year-old ban on rhinoceros horn products should not be lifted unless the money generated from trade is reinvested in improved protection of the rhinoceros population. Because current protection efforts seem to be failing, it is time to evaluate, discuss, and test alternatives to the present policy.

An analysis of threats, strategies, and opportunities for African rhinoceros conservation

Admire Chanyandura, Victor K. Muposhi, Edson Gandiwa, Never Muboko. 2021. Ecology and Evolution

The complexity and magnitude of threats to black (Diceros bicornis) and white (Ceratotherium simum) rhinoceros conservation in Africa have triggered global concerns and actions. In this study, we analyzed (i) threats to rhinoceros conservation including external shocks, (ii) historical rhinoceros conservation strategies in Zimbabwe and Africa, more broadly, and (iii) opportunities for enhanced rhinoceros conservation in Zimbabwe and Africa. A literature search from 1975 to 2020 was carried out using a predefined search protocol, involving a number of filters based on a set of keywords to balance search sensitivity with specificity. A total of 193 articles, which were most relevant to key themes on rhinoceros conservation, were used in this study. The common threats to rhinoceros conservation identified in this paper include poaching, habitat fragmentation and loss, international trade in illegal rhino products, and external shocks such as global financial recessions and pandemics. Cascading effects emanating from these threats include small and isolated populations, which are prone to genetic, demographic, and environmental uncertainties. Rhinoceros conservation strategies being implemented include education and awareness campaigns, better equipped and more antipoaching efforts, use of innovative systems and technologies, dehorning, and enhancing safety nets, and livelihoods of local communities. Opportunities for rhinoceros conservation vary across the spatial scale, and these include (a) a well-coordinated stakeholder and community involvement, (b) strategic meta-population management, (c) enhancing law enforcement initiatives through incorporating real-time surveillance technologies and intruder detection sensor networks for crime detection, (d) scaling up demand reduction awareness campaigns, and (e) developing more certified wildlife crime and forensic laboratories, and information repository for international corporation.

Rehabilitation method affects behavior, welfare, and adaptation potential for subsequent release of orphaned white rhinoceros

María C. Fà bregas & Geoffrey T. Fosgate & André Ganswindt & Henk Bertschinger & Markus Hofmeyr & Leith C. R. Meyer Acta ethologica April 2020

Poaching is the primary threat to the survival of rhinoceros’ populations. One frequent consequence of poaching is the creation of orphan calves. If found, orphans are taken into captivity for rehabilitation and subsequent release. However, rehabilitation practices can influence their behavior and welfare, potentially compromising their post-release adaptation and survival. In this study, the effects of hands-off and hands-on rehabilitation methods on the behavior, welfare, and adaptation potential of orphaned white rhinoceros (Certatotherium simum simum) were compared. To achieve these aims, 12 behavioral, one physiological, and four physical indicators of welfare and adaptation potential were measured non-invasively on 25 orphaned rhino at two rehabilitation facilities in South Africa. Results indicated that although orphan welfare was not compromised under either rehabilitation method, the hands-off cohort showed fewer indicators of poor welfare and more indicators of good welfare. Regarding adaptation potential, hands-off rehabilitated rhino showed the species’ natural response to humans, and alert and defense behaviors were part of their behavioral repertoire. The hands-on cohort displayed fewer social interactions than the hands-off cohort, showed habituation to humans, and seldom expressed alert or defense behaviors, which could potentially compromise their survival and social integration after release. Post-release studies are required to confirm whether fitness is compromised in hands-on rehabilitated rhino. Until then, we suggest to minimize anthropogenic exposure during rehabilitation in order to maximize welfare and retain crucial behaviors for post-release adaptation and survival.

Reducing the sixth mass extinction: Understanding the value of human-altered landscapes to the conservation of the world’s largest terrestrial mammals

Erik JoaquínTorres-Romero Anthony J.Giordano GerardoCeballos José Vicente López-Bao. 2020. Biological conservation.

The world’s large terrestrial mammalian carnivores and herbivores (henceforth, megafauna) has been severely impacted by humans worldwide. Although this impact across the globe is variable, there has been little information quantifying this impact on biodiversity. Here, we use a macroecological modeling approach to evaluate the impact of different human activities on megafauna species richness at global and biogeographical scales with respect to seven human-altered landscapes variables. At both global and biogeographical scales, we found that human accessibility, human footprint, and small livestock density, had the most negative effects on megafauna species richness, whereas large livestock density, wilderness, and natural protected areas, were more positively associated with megafauna species richness. Our results indicate that megafauna can indeed persist in human-modified landscapes, but different types of human activity can differentially influence species richness. Thus, although continued human impact such as urban, livestock and agricultural development continues to represent a threat to most megafauna, their future viability is potentially compatible with several global change factors we examined. Moreover, our findings are still consistent with the emphasis on conservation strategies that focus on habitat protection to maximize the conservation of megafaunal richness. We urge stronger national and international policy commitments inclusive of multi-use landscapes, greater anti-poaching enforcement, and the development of wildlife-friendly policy incentives for the managers of private and communal land. We also advise caution in interpreting our results, and believe local and regional scale population monitoring programs are still necessary to better facilitate coexistence with humans.

Empowering women to protect wildlife in former hunting tourism zones: a political ecology of Akashinga, Zimbabwe

Mucha Mkono,Raymond Rastegar & Lisa Ruhanen. 2021 Journal of Sustainable Tourism

Anti-poaching is an important component of the tourism management system for destinations that rely on wildlife as their key attraction. The present paper, broadly grounded in political ecology, explores how social justice tenets are used to frame and implement anti-poaching initiatives in Sub-Saharan Africa. In particular, the study examines the Akashinga model, a Zimbabwean woman-only anti-poaching initiative founded by the Australian conservation activist, Damien Mander. Political ecology lends itself well to the analysis of social justice initiatives as it unpacks how political, economic and social factors interact with environmental issues and changes. Akashinga is particularly compelling as a socially innovative conservation model intended to replace hunting tourism in Sub-Saharan wilderness areas. Data were collected from a rich selection of online sources, including social media and relevant websites. Our analysis reveals Akashinga’s framing and modus operandi as premised three dimensions: community involvement, the empowerment of women, and the superiority of women in achieving anti-poaching success and broader conservation outcomes. It is argued that, while Akashinga makes a positive contribution to the local community and wildlife conservation efforts, there are important caveats to consider, in the context of postcolonial power relations.